An Introduction to the Recording Process

The purpose of this guide is to try to present a non-technical, practical guide to help anyone new to recording to get the most out of the process. It is based on our many years' experience of recording both professional and amateur musicians and is particularly aimed at amateur groups who wish to make and sell a recording privately (e.g. at concerts).

It covers the following topics:

Preparation
Recording
Editing
Mastering
Copyright
Production
Artwork
CD Pricing
Distribution
Choosing a Recording Company

Preparation

It is often said that the recording process can be a great leveller - a mediocre orchestra can sound world-class once recording technology has worked its magic. Whilst there may be an element of truth in this, technology alone cannot guarantee a great recording; the key is in the preparation. A golden rule here is "don't rush!" - allow yourselves enough time to bring your performance up to a standard that reflects the best quality you can achieve.

Often, amateur musicians do not have the rehearsal time available to sustain a full CD's worth of repertoire at recordable standard and you may consider spreading the recording sessions over several months so that scarce rehearsal time can be concentrated on just certain sections of the CD repertoire at any one time.

A typical CD recording project usually takes around two to four months to complete after the final recording session, and this should be taken into account when planning a project - particularly when it has to be ready for a particular event or time of year.

Apart from the musical quality of the performance, there are three other main factors which determine the basic sound quality of a recording: First, the type of recording recording equipment used. Second, the technical ability of the recording engineer, and third, the acoustics of the venue.

The quality of modern recording equipment and personnel is such that, assuming a reputable recording company is employed, the first two factors can normally be taken for granted. This only leaves finding a suitable recording venue, a factor which often does not receive the level of attention it deserves. This is a great shame since the acoustics of the recording venue is usually the single largest determinant of the overall sound quality of a recording.

It is important to record in suitable acoustics for three reasons. First, it allows the recording engineer to capture a natural sound balance without over-reliance on electronic enhancement. Second, a good acoustic will enable good musical contact between performers which will help with achieving ensemble and blend. Third, and perhaps most important, if the acoustics are right then the performers will enjoy the sound they make. This increases their confidence and, in turn, leads to a better final recording. The lack of any such ambience in typical studios is one of the main reasons why classical music recordings are generally made on location.

Of course, there is no such thing as the ideal venue for all types of music, and symphonic repertoire obviously requires a considerably more reverberant acoustic than, say, chamber or vocal repertoire. The best way of assessing a venue's suitability for recording a particular work is to perform or rehearse in it. Where this is impractical, there are a number of simple tests that you can carry out. First, stand in the area where the musicians will be performing and clap your hands. Ideally, the clap should die away smoothly and naturally. If you can hear discrete echoes then this can lead to problems during a recording session. Also try singing a few (preferably bass) scales. Do certain notes "boom" or stand out from the rest? If so, this would indicate a "room-mode resonance" which, again, can cause problems during recording sessions.

Depending upon their severity these and other acoustic defects can be cured by appropriate microphone placement or use of temporary sound reflectors and absorbers, although it is preferable to find a venue without such inherent defects. If it proves difficult to find a venue with appropriate reverberation, then err on the side of "dryness". This is because it is possible to add natural-sounding electronic reverberation to a recording which is too dry, but it is impossible to remove excessive reverberation once it has been recorded. Also, what is the level of noise intrusion into the venue? Can you hear traffic, aeroplanes, birds, central heating systems? If possible you should visit the venue a number of times during different weather conditions since different conditions tend to produce different noise sources - eg lawnmowers in summer, rain/wind noise during winter etc.

Obviously, if you intend to use the venue's house piano or organ this should be in a suitable condition for recordings. Whilst the occasional creak or click may be acceptable for live concerts, it may well become irritating on repeated hearing.

Finally, it is helpful if the venue has a suitable control room available. This should be acoustically isolated from the recording area and no further than approximately 50 metres away (longer distances are possible but excessively long microphone cable runs can be inconvenient and degrade the sound slightly). The control room need not be large since modern digital recording equipment is very compact and portable. Any reputable recording company will be able to advise on a suitable venue and will probably want to visit the chosen venue prior to the recording session.

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Recording

By the time of the recording session, the performers should be fully rehearsed with a minimum of around 60 minutes of material ready to record. All too often time is lost during the recording session by rehearsing passages or discussing performance notes. Another common interruption to the smooth flow of recording sessions is performer noise. It can be very frustrating for performers if an otherwise perfect "take" is made unusable due to noisy page turns or creaking choir platforms. To ensure that the sessions run smoothly it is helpful to try and instill the discipline required for recording during rehearsals.

The amount of recording time required will depend upon the type and length of the repertoire to be recorded and, of course, on the available budget. For CDs we would recommend two days' recording although one (long) day is possible.

When arranging recording sessions, it is important to take into account the preferences of the performers. Very few singers, for example, are at their best first thing in the morning and some performers only hit their peak in the middle of the night! A good recording company will accommodate these needs; and, incidentally, night-time sessions are also a good way of minimising traffic noise interruptions!

The key point here is that for a truly successful recording the performers must enjoy and be fully committed to their performance and anything which helps them to give of their best is worth considering - nothing comes across more clearly on repeated listening than musicians who are tired or who have been recording for too long.

The mechanics of the recording sessions themselves are very simple. They will normally be controlled by the recording engineer/producer who will communicate with the performers via audio and video links between the control room and recording area. Typically, each piece will be performed straight through a number of times to obtain a good basic performance which will form the backbone of the version which appears on the final recording. Then certain sections of the piece may be repeated as "cover" for any flawed sections in the "backbone" version.

For professional CD releases a music producer is often employed in addition to the recording engineer to make detailed musical assessments of each take. For smaller-scale productions, this role is often taken by the recording engineer (who will usually also be an able musician - but do check!). Alternatively if there is someone who knows your repertoire and whose opinion you respect, they can often provide good advice to the recording engineer during sessions.

Pieces can be recorded in any order and assembled into the CD running order at the mastering stage. When deciding the recording order it is worth considering the workload of performers, especially singers. For example, if a tenor has a particularly demanding solo it is best to record this early in the sessions when his voice is still fresh.

Recording techniques will vary between different recording companies but the majority of classical recordings are recorded directly in digital stereo. For surround sound and complex stereo recordings it is more common to record onto digital multi-track although this can substantially increase the cost of both the recording sessions and subsequent stages.

The great advantage of digital recording over earlier analogue recording is not just the virtual elimination of noise and distortion, but also the ease with which the recording can be subsequently edited and mastered.

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Editing

Editing is the process whereby the best sections from each "take" of a particular piece are joined together to form one "perfect" version of the piece. There have been huge technological advances in what is possible with digital editing, to the extent that it is now commonplace to have an edit every few seconds in a classical CD.

Whilst the technical quality of digital editing and the considerable skills of the best editors can now make edits inaudible, it is inevitable that any edits will reduce, to some extent, the sense of musical shape and structure obtained during a live performance. For this reason it is preferable to keep edits to a minimum and to use as many long takes as possible.

A perfect edit is one where the takes which are to be edited together have identical pitch, tempo, dynamics, phrasing and musical balance. As you can imagine this is an extremely rare occurrence, and to choose which take to use and where to make edits can be a very time-consuming process.

Editing is carried out on a computer which has all the takes from the recording sessions. Since the computer can give instant access to any part of the recorded material and thus enable easy comparison of takes, it is best to make editing decisions at the computer in conjunction with the editing engineer.

However, where this is impractical, it is also possible to evaluate CDR copies of the session tapes and then mark edits onto a score for the editing engineer to follow at a later date.

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Mastering

Mastering is the process of assembling all the edited works together into the correct running order and the right format to be sent to the pressing or duplication plant.

Mastering is also the best time to make fine adjustments to the sound of the recording. For example, the recording may require compression to control excessive dynamic range or need equalisation (EQ) which is a sophisticated digital equivalent to adjusting the tone controls found on domestic hi-fi. EQ can be a great help in filtering out traffic noise or rectifying certain acoustic defects found in many recording venues.

Another problem which can be improved at the mastering stage is when recordings are made in venues which are too "dry" - ie do not have sufficient natural reverberation to complement the music. Many recordings therefore use electronic reverberation to "add life" to the sound of a dull recording venue.

Whilst electronic reverberation can make a huge improvement to the sound after it has been recorded, unfortunately the performers cannot hear the improvement whilst they are performing. Therefore it is best not to rely on electronic reverberation too heavily and instead to find a recording venue with sufficient natural reverberation which will help to inspire the performers.

The end result of the mastering stage is a "Production Master" which is sent to the pressing plant.

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Copyright

Once you have decided the final format(s) and exactly which works are to be included on the recording, it is necessary to obtain a licence to start manufacture. Such a licence is straightforward to obtain and ensures that some of the proceeds from selling a recording go to the original composer (or other nominated copyright holder).

From the moment a piece of music is written or recorded it is almost always "in copyright". This means that the copyright holder has the right to say who can make recordings of the work and on what terms. Until fairly recently, copyright in the UK used to extend for 50 years after the year of the composer's death; after that the works went into the "public domain" and could be freely used. However, from 1 January 1996 the UK came into line with the rest of Europe and extended the copyright period from 50 years to 70 years.

It is not only the original composer of a work who has control of the copyright over that work. A new arrangement or performing edition of a public domain work is also subject to the 70 year copyright rule. This means that even the works of very early composers can still be in copyright.

The right to make a recording of a piece of music is called the "mechanical right" and the royalties payable are called the "mechanical royalties". The MCPS (Mechanical Copyright Protection Society) represents the vast majority of copyright holders in the UK and (by agreement with other societies) in most of the world. It is to the MCPS that applications should be made for licences to record a particular work.

Various licence schemes exist but, for the vast majority of amateur groups, the simplest scheme (called AP.2) is applicable. Under this scheme, an AFL (Application For Licence) is submitted to the MCPS prior to manufacture of the recording. The AFL consists of two parts. The first contains details of the works on the recording such as Composer, Arranger, Running-time etc. The second contains production details such as the quantities to be produced, the plant where the recording will be pressed and the proposed dealer/retail selling price.

The MCPS analyses the AFL and advises which works it can license and which are public domain. They will issue a licence to manufacture (a copy of which will also be sent directly to the pressing or duplication plant) and an invoice which is calculated at 8.5% of the Published Dealer Price (ie the highest price published by you or your distributor) or 6.5% of the retail price if you have no Published Dealer Price.

For example, if you manufacture a CD in which all the works are licensed by the MCPS and which is on sale directly to the public for £10.00, then the royalty payable to the MCPS will be 65p per disc. If only 50% of the total playing time of the disc is in copyright then the royalty will be pro rata (ie 32.5p per disc). Of course, any reputable recording company will be able to organise MCPS licences for you as part of its services.

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Production

For CDs, the production master has to undergo a series of further transformations (including glass mastering and subsequent electroplating) before it can finally be used to produce the CDs (known as "red-book" CDs or "silver discs"). These processes are complicated and expensive and are the main reason why the initial costs of CD manufacture are fairly high. However, once they have been carried out for the initial CD pressing run, they do not need to be repeated for any further pressings and so the cost of CD re-pressing is substantially lower.

The minimum economic pressing run for CDs is typically 500 units. Some pressing plants do offer runs of as low as 250 units, although the one-off production charges and machine-set up costs tend to make such short runs prohibitively expensive. This is why short runs are generally produced on CDR.

The ability to produce one CDR at a time means there is no minimum pressing run. This also makes the process ideal for early evaluation-copies of recordings or for archive recordings of live concerts.

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Artwork

The presentational quality of the finished product is an essential part of making a recording. In fact, for private recordings which are often sold at concerts, the visual appearance is arguably more important than the sound quality since it is the appearance which arouses initial interest in the product.

It is well known that if a product looks good it will sell well and command a higher price. Yet, so often the design is not given the attention it deserves and unattractive or dull products are the result.

Unfortunately, with the availability of cheap desktop publishing software it is very tempting to "have a go" at the design, but it is only by using talented and experienced designers combined with the highest quality reprographic services that a truly professional-looking product can be produced.

For this reason, Opera Omnia only uses experienced designers and this has, we believe, been a significant factor in the commercial success of our recordings.

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CD Pricing

In addition to the various artistic considerations in making a recording, it usually has to be financially viable as well, and successful recordings can be very profitable.

Of course, the price at which you can sell your recording is closely linked to the perceived visual and sonic quality of the recording. Therefore, to sell your recording at or around full price, it will be necessary to employ a company capable of producing a fully professional product.

The costs incurred in making a recording broadly fall into two categories: first, the costs associated with the musical performance, which could include venue, music and instrument hire, performers' fees etc; second, the recording and production costs.

The recording and production costs can vary greatly depending upon a number of factors including: 1) the recording and editing time required, 2) the quantity of product manufactured, 3) the complexity of reprographics (eg type and size of pictures/photographs etc), 4) the size and type of booklet and inlay cards (including any special print processes such as foil blocking, embossing etc) and 5) any additional manufacturing processes (eg shrink-wrapping).

With all these variables to consider, it is extremely difficult to define a typical price, but you should currently expect to pay between £5.00 and £6.00 per CD for the first 500 units (excluding VAT and MCPS licensing). This includes the one-off initial production costs outlined above, so the unit cost for additional CDs after the first 500 should drop substantially to between £1.50 and £3.00 each.

The key objective is thus to make the recording as attractive as possible so that the first 500 CDs can be sold quickly. Some companies charge less than these figures and some charge more. With the cheaper companies it is inevitable that corners will be cut at various stages of the process and the savings made in lower recording costs need to be balanced against the likely corresponding lower level/value of sales. With the more expensive companies, the law of diminishing returns starts to apply. Whilst it is tempting to try to achieve similar production values to those of the major recording labels, if the likely level of sales does not support the budget, the project becomes uneconomic.

Most recording companies have a flexible attitude to recording agreements and will most likely have various payment schemes to suit organisations with differing levels of capital reserves. For example, recent payment arrangements for Opera Omnia recordings made with amateur groups have ranged from, at one extreme, 100% payment due upon delivery of the finished discs, to the other extreme where we funded the entire project and received payment as a percentage of CD sales.

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Distribution

A quick glance through CD catalogues will quickly show the bewildering number and variety of recordings available. It sometimes seems that for any particular work you could buy almost any conceivable combination of Soloists, Orchestra and Conductor!

Against this backdrop of fierce competition it is best to be realistic about your recording. While it is certainly possible to arrange distribution on either a nationwide or worldwide scale for exceptional recordings, by far the most successful method of selling private recordings is to arrange your own distribution. This could include selling recordings at concerts and through mailing lists of past concert-goers or your organisation's Friends Society or web-site if you have one.

It could also include sale-or-return arrangements with local shops. Also, with the increase in number of local radio stations all eager to represent the activities of their local community, it should become increasingly easier to gain valuable publicity through local radio airplay.

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Recording Companies

Choosing a recording company is one of the key decisions in any recording project. It can make all the difference between an enjoyable experience which produces an artistically and financially successful recording to be proud of and a disaster which is best forgotten.

The availability of inexpensive digital recording equipment has prompted numerous companies to start up in the recording market, all offering what appear to be very similar services, so it is important to find out about prospective companies. Any reputable company will be pleased to send you copies of their past recordings and some companies (such as Opera Omnia) may have sampler CDs available which demonstrate their recordings of a wide variety of musical styles.

However, the quality of their finished product only tells you half the story. It is also very important to find out about the type of people you might be dealing with. In particular, you should talk with (and preferably meet) the engineer who would be controlling your recording sessions.

It is vital that he/she has an affinity with the music to be recorded as well as having the personal qualities necessary to generate a creative and constructive recording atmosphere.

Of course, the best way to assess any recording company you are considering employing is to talk to their past clients, and we would always strongly recommend taking up references.

Perhaps the best test of a recording company is to find out how many clients have made, or intend to make, more than one recording with that company.

Below is a checklist of 10 questions which you may find helpful when evaluating prospective recording companies. As a benchmark, we have also given answers to these questions as they relate to Opera Omnia.

1) Which stages of the recording process can your company carry out?
All stages outlined above, from the initial recording to the delivery of the finished product. We can also supply only limited services to fit in with clients who may wish to carry out part of the process themselves (recording or graphic design, for example).

2) What qualifications (both musical and technical) do your recording engineers have?
Our lead engineer, Patrick Allen (who is present at all recording sessions), has a degree in Acoustics and trained at the BBC prior to over 20 years' professional experience in the audio field. His work include CD recordings for a number of commercial labels and broadcasts for national radio stations in the UK, USA, Australia and Canada. He is also an enthusiastic choral singer and pianist and has composed soundtracks for film, video and theatre productions.

3) What range of musical repertoire and scale of performing group has your company recorded?
We have recorded performers ranging from soloists and chamber groups through to symphony orchestra with double chorus and soloists. Recorded works range from early 13th century to contemporary and include not only classical music but also jazz, folk and close harmony singing. Recording venues range from churches, cathedrals and general halls through to specialist music venues such as Snape Maltings, Wigmore Hall and the Purcell Room.

4) Who carries out your artwork design?
Our design work is carried out by experienced graphic designers using industry standard publishing products. (Adobe Photoshop & QuarkExpress)

5) What degree of control do I have over the editing, mastering and design processes?
As much or as little as you wish. Many of our clients find the recording process as fascinating as we do and are keen to be closely involved at all stages. We welcome this and will arrange editing and mastering sessions appropriately.

6) What technical facilities does your company use?
see technical facilities for full list.

7) Will you provide a list of your clients for whom you have recently worked and may I contact them for a reference?
We are delighted for you to contact any of our past clients .

8) What price can we expect to sell your recording for?
Opera Omnia CDs are typically sold for between £10 - £15

9) Where are your CDs manufactured?
This depends on the processes involved but all production is carried out by top-quality UK or European based manufacturers.

10) What payment schemes does your company offer?
We aim to be flexible in our payment schemes and are happy to discuss any method which suits your organisation.

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